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The width and colour of the pathway indicate the magnitude and direction of variability. The width at the point of impact is narrower indicating considerably less variability than the backswing and downswing that precede it. Golf has been described as one of the most complex, technically demanding and high precision sports that exist 55 55 Ferdinands RED, Kwon YH.

Clinicians that work with golfers should consider that inter golfer and intra golfer variability in swing performance will be affected by task, environment, and organism constraints, all of which interact to determine the patterns of motion that are observed when a golfer swings a club 45 45 Glazier P.

Despite an increased understanding of the swing from both biomechanics and neuroscience research, the best way to optimise both swing and outcome performance for an individual golfer remains elusive. From a physical therapist's perspective, optimising performance in golf requires knowledge of not only the technical and physical requirements of the sport, but also how these domains are interrelated with the fields of psychology, motor learning, and motor control.

While recognising the importance of a multimodal approach to optimising golf performance, the following sections focus on the physical requirements of golf and evidence pertaining to whether exercise programs can help golfers improve their performance. Strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of highly proficient golfers. Comparison of spine motion in elite golfers with and without low back pain.

A comparison of physical characteristics and swing mechanics between golfers with and without a history of low back pain. Nevertheless, a combination of mobility, stability, strength, and cardiovascular fitness is frequently recommended for optimal 'golf fitness' 14 14 Smith MF. Competitive elite golf: a review of the relationships between playing results, technique and physique.

Work and power analysis of the golf swing. Electromyography variables during the golf swing: a literature review. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. Muscle activity during the golf swing. Br J Sports Med. From the collated data, it is apparent that the trunk extensors, hip extensors, and the abdominal muscles all play an important role in producing a powerful efficient golf swing.

The efficient transfer of energy from the lower body to the muscle groups of the chest and arms and eventually the hands and club the "bottom up phenomenon" 60 60 Nesbit SM, Serrano M. Golfers spend many hours practising. Professional golfers can perform up to swings in a single practice session and hit over shots per week 67 67 Jobe FW, Pink MM.

Shoulder pain in golf. Current golf Clin Sports Med. Golf injuries. An overview. To ensure a golfer can meet both the physical and mental demands of playing tournament golf and avoid the detrimental effects that fatigue has been shown to have on performance 11 11 Evans K, Refshauge KM, Adams RD, Barrett R.

Motor control strategies and the effects of fatigue on golf putting performance. Front Psychol. In summary, playing golf has very specific physical requirements that have led many researchers, coaches, and clinicians to suggest that physical preparation programs should be undertaken by golfers of all ages and abilities in order to improve performance and prevent golf related injury.

This paper will not focus on the latter but on findings from studies that have investigated whether exercise programs can improve golf performance. Golf-specific exercises have been advocated for many years, with early attempts being largely idiosyncratic and based on personal experience and opinion. Let me add, that, as far as I know, no data on this subject of specific golf muscle-building has ever been given, and I have had to grope my way along according to my own ideas and following my own observations, endeavouring to build up my golfing muscles to the best of my ability 70 70 Cotton H.

This game of golf. London: Country Life; Cotton's statement reflects the predominant understanding of human performance in the 's: increased muscular strength should result in improved performance. A golf specific exercise program would therefore be designed to target the specific muscles used in the sport. In their review of strength and conditioning programs for improving fitness in golfers, Smith et al.

A systematic review of strength and conditioning programmes designed to improve fitness characteristics in golfers. In addition to load, this definition adds coordination, pattern specificity, and speed to the idea of what makes exercises golf-specific.

Interestingly, Smith et al. Effect of an 8 week combined weights and plyometrics training program on golf drive performance. Effects of an 8 week multimodal exercise program on strength, flexibility, and golf performance in 55 to 79 year old men. J Aging Phys Act. The effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation flexibility training on the clubhead speed of recreational golfers.

Leeds: Human Kinetics; , p. Despite the fact that several of the studies reviewed by Smith et al. Since Smith et al. Muscle strength and golf performance: a critical review. These studies have again been diverse in terms of the exercises prescribed e. The effect of isolated core training on selected measures of golf swing performance. The effect of an 8 week plyometric exercise program on golf swing kinematics.

Effects of an 18 week strength training program on low handicap golfers' performance. Effects of different warm up programs on golf performance in elite male golfers. Int J Sports Phys Ther. Effectiveness of a six week strength and functional training program on golf performance. International Journal of Golf Science. Similar to previous work, direct measures of golf performance e.

Overall, the results support the notion that it is more important that a golfer do some form of exercise rather than no exercise, irrespective of what particular type of exercise is undertaken. Effects of dry land vs. Comparing short term complex and compound training programs on vertical jump height and power output.

Historically, most reviews of exercise therapy for patients with LBP conclude that when different types of exercise are compared directly, exercise in general is effective 83 That is, there does not appear to be one form of exercise that is superior to another for patients with LBP. What the studies do not tell us, however, by reporting group means, is whether one program is better for a given individual and if so, which one.

More recently, studies comparing interventions based on subgrouping of patients and development of clinical prediction rules have been conducted with the aim of more specifically tailoring interventions based on a set of patient characteristics. However, it has proven extremely challenging to develop theoretical and practical frameworks that consider enough of a patient's biological as well as psychosocial characteristics to determine effective treatment strategies 86 86 Huijnen IPJ, Rusu AC, Scholich S, Meloto CB, Diatchenko L.

Subgrouping of low back pain patients for targeting treatments: evidence from genetic, psychological, and activity related behavioral approaches. Clin J Pain. Individually tailored treatment targeting motor behavior, cognition, and disability: 2 experimental single case studies of patients with recurrent and persistent musculoskeletal pain in primary health care.

Phys Ther. To date, when studies of the effects of exercise programs on golf performance have subgrouped participants, the grouping criteria have been according to handicap, age, or gender. Grouping a golfer based on handicap intuitively makes the most sense - skilled golfers have more consistent swing kinematics than unskilled golfers and therefore any changes post intervention are more likely to be as a result of the intervention than due to measurement error.

However, one only has to look at the player anthropometrics of the Ladies Professional Golf Association's LPGA Top 10 female golfers to recognise that even the best players in the world are reasonably heterogeneous. There is still much to understand about how to assist golfers improve their game and avoid injury.

It will be important to ensure the validity of the measurements that are being made, consider more sophisticated measures or methods of analysis, and ensure that the outcomes being considered are true indicators of the desired outcomes. Perhaps most importantly, however, is to use measures that reflect the dynamic nature of golf and are capable of taking into consideration individual variation in strategies and responses.

New tools such as a variety of wearable sensors, marker-less motion tracking, and wide field-of-view electromagnetic tracking systems are becoming available that can assist to improve our understanding of the biomechanics and by enabling studies to be carried out on the golf course instead of the laboratory. Oakley flak beta golf Alternatively, if laboratory studies continue to be used, it will be important to cross validate the methodologies to ensure what occurs in the lab actually reflects what occurs on the course.

Similarly, it will be important to determine how the surrogate measures of performance typically used in the lab relate to performance on the course. The systems that are currently used in most biomechanics laboratories are able to determine location of points on the body and ground reaction forces at rates of hundreds or even thousands of samples per second and create a 3D reconstruction of the entire movement pattern through time.

In spite of the dazzling complexity and accuracy of the data, much of the analyses use simplified variables such as maximum or minimum values of locations, angles, speeds, or accelerations or the values of these parameters at predetermined time points during the swing. One of a relatively small number of studies that evaluated data across the time course of the swing was that of Tucker et al.

The authors recorded the locations of 14 points on the golfer's body and club at Hz for 10 swings by each of 16 golfers. As more is understood about individual variation, it may be possible to develop and assess the efficacy of individualised programs for individual golfers.

Instead of the more common study design, which compares two or more groups and have every member of the group receiving the same intervention, individualised programs could be assessed using a parallel group design. Perhaps more appropriate, however, to evaluate individual treatment responses would be the use of so called "n of one trials" 88 88 Senn S.

Individual therapy: New dawn or false dawn. Drug Inf J. The power of this design comes from each intervention option being trialled more than once in a multiple crossover design e. One type of intervention being consistently superior in more than one comparison provides much stronger evidence for it being actually superior. An advantage of n of one trials is that they are also available to the therapist in clinical practice.

Consider for example if two exercise programs have demonstrated benefits, but in a head to head comparison neither is superior. Outcome measures measure outcomes, not effects of intervention. Aust J Physiother. However, by applying an n of one design in clinical practice, the therapist no longer has to rely on average results but can determine which of the options is better for each individual golfer at a given time.

Despite the growing body of research investigating the golf swing, much remains unknown and translating the findings from the biomechanical, physiological, motor learning, and motor control research into clinical practice, where the aim is to assist golfers improve their performance and prevent injury, remains challenging.

It is generally well accepted that, in order to improve performance, a multimodal approach is required and both researchers and clinicians need to consider the aforementioned inter related dimensions in order to help optimise golf performance. There are general principles of exercise that are likely to be of benefit to all golfers, and the study designs employed to date have provided a wealth of information and should inform current and future practice.

However, more sophisticated tools and designs are available that are capable of expanding our knowledge of golf and practice, thereby potentially increasing our ability to assist our clients improve their golf performance. The authors wish to thank Dr Catherine Tucker and colleagues for allowing use of this image which illustrates some of the findings from their research.

Open menu Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy. About the journal Editorial Board Instructions to authors Contact. Open menu. Text EN Text English. ABSTRACT Golf, a global sport enjoyed by people of all ages and abilities, involves relatively long periods of low intensity exercise interspersed with short bursts of high intensity activity. Introduction The inclusion of golf in the Summer Olympic Games for the first time since is an indicator of the increasing globalisation of the sport.

The game of golf Golf is a sport that involves a relatively long duration of low intensity activity interspersed with short bursts of high intensity activity. Current golf Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Dr Catherine Tucker and colleagues for allowing use of this image which illustrates some of the findings from their research. Golf science research at the beginning of the twenty first century.

International Golf Federation. IGF National members [Internet]. HSBC Group. Smith MF. Ball K, Best R. Lumbar spinal loads and muscle activity during a golf swing. Electromyographic analysis of the shoulder during the golf swing. Electromyographic analysis of the trunk in golfers.

Electromyographic analysis of forearm muscles in professional and amateur golfers. Trunk muscle activation during golf swing: Baseline and threshold. Key properties of expert movement systems in sport : an ecological dynamics perspective. Golf: a high intensity interval activity for elderly men. Aging Clin Exp Res. Glazier P. Knight CA. Neuromotor issues in the learning and control of golf skill.

Movement variability in the golf swing. Stergiou N, Decker LM. Davids K, Glazier P. Lindsay D, Horton J. Nesbit SM, Serrano M. European Tour. Ladies European Tour. European Challenge Tour. European Seniors Tour. PGA Tour. LPGA Tour. Korn Ferry Tour. World Golf Championship. Champions Tour. Ryder Cup. Solheim Cup. FedEx Cup. Race to Costa Del Sol.

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